Over the years the Minneapolis Institute of Arts has acquired a sizable collection of Japanese screens. Each one of these works served a decorative function, helping to enliven the austere and often bland interior of an upper-class Japanese residence. All of these screens are made of the same materials (paper stretched tightly over a lightweight wooden frame) and even the largest of them is easily moved from one location to another. Color is usually bright and is contrasted with the liberal use of gold foil. Although these are primarily decorative works, and as such enjoyed less prestige in classical circles than the hanging scroll or other kinds of painting, they were nonetheless created by the leading masters of Japanese art, and this kind of painting became increasingly popular after the fifteenth century. In certain instances, particularly in the early period of screen painting, one can discern the influence of Chinese art, but for the most part the development of this genre in Japan is along indigenous grounds and even the format is rarely seen on the mainland.A pair of six-fold screens illustrates two episodes taken from the Heike Monogatari, the famous thirteenth-century romance which outlines the bitter strife between the Taira Clan (the Heike) and their rivals the Minamoto (the Genie).¹ This brutal conflict which plunged close relations, sometimes from within a single family, into bloody and often treacherous combat was set against a background of general misery among the populace brought on by generations of war and the calamity of famine and disease. The issue between these warring clans was resolved in three critical battles. The first took place on the morning of March 20, 1184. The Minamoto forces under the command of Yoshitsune, who was only an infant when blood was first let between the two clans, planned an attack on the Taira stronghold at Ichi-no-tani on the sea coast near Kobe. The Taira had set up a line along the coast which was considered impregnable, but through some bold tactical manoeuvres, including a sunrise cavalry charge down nearly impassable mountains, the Minamoto were able to contain both ends of the enemy line and to penetrate its center. The Taira had no choice but to flee in ships across the inland sea to establish a base at Yashima on the island of Shikoku. Yoshitsune did not pursue the Minamoto until a year later, but then on March 19, 1185, he acted with characteristic vigor and imagination. Departing in the gale which had partially destroyed many of his warships, he landed a small force near Yashima and ordered that camp fires be conspicuously displayed for the benefit of the enemy. The Minamoto, who had expected an attack from the sea, found themselves besieged from their rear and, without even reconnoitering the size of the attacking army, fled once more down the straights of the inland sea. A month later Yoshitsune set sail in pursuit, and in the treacherous waters near Dannoura, the Taira were defeated and the young emperor drowned.The anonymous painter in the Institute's screens adopts a panoramic view of the two great battles. The prominent mountain located near the center of the right-handed screen with the armed men "hidden" at its peak and spilling down its side undoubtedly refers to the wild cavalry charge at Ichi-no-tani, but in the other screen, depicting the rout of the enemy by sea-shore, only the most salient features of the setting are indicated. Although there is a considerable amount of group action displayed, very little attention is given to the characterization of the individual participants. However, whatever was lacking in the dramatic presentation of the theme would have been instantly supplied from the memory of the viewer who was familiar with every nuance of character as described in the romance and chanted in the old ballads. One small scene tentatively identified as the conflict between Kumagai Naozane and a young warrior will illustrate the point. After the debacle at Ichi-no-tani, Kumagai hastened to the beach in the hopes of capturing an important prisoner. Coming upon a richly dressed warrior fleeing in the surf, he challenged the coward to turn and fight. The warrior returned and was easily vanquished. Kumagai was about to kill him when he realized that his adversary was only about sixteen years old. Thinking of his own son, wounded in the conflict in the morning's battle, he would have spared him, but other members of his own troupe appeared on the scene. Realizing that the boy's fate was sealed, he delivered the fatal blow, beheading the youngster rather than turning him over to the approaching troops. Stripping the body of its armor, he came upon a flute in a brocaded bag. Touched by this poignant reminder of the boy's gentle nature, he wept bitterly and afterward turned to the religious life, becoming the priest Rensei. Incidentally, this incident has been elaborated into a Noh play under the title Atsumori, the name of the unfortunate victim of this bloody moment in Japanese history.Another screen in the collection illustrates a more joyful subject,² the annual "Boat Festival" held in mid-April on Lake Biwa near the town of Sakamoto at the foot of Mt. Hiei. Yet even in this instance, there are tragic political overtones surrounding the event. The warrior monks of Mt. Hiei were a formidable force who on more than one occasion had descended on the capital of Kyoto, extracting even from the Emperor concessions to their demands. They were held in such fear that the great military leader Oda Nobnaga stormed Hieizan in October of 1571, destroying the vast temple complex and slaughtering the men, women, and children housed there. Consequently the Boat Festival, whose precise origin is not clear, was suspended and not revived until 1591.This festival involves a competition between seven boats, each bearing a sacred palanquin, which sail from Sakamoto to a seven-branched willow, pull to shore, debarking a sacred horse, and set to sea once again after making a ritual offering of wine. Each of the boats (actually two or more boats bound together and provided with a common platform) bears a palanquin and is decorated with paper charms, bamboo, and other paraphernalia. There is one interesting side-light in the festival. At its end members of the Imperial family are taken from the boats and offered temporary shelter at the nearby shrine, a feature which would suggest some particular political significance for this event. As in the other screen the emphasis is on group activity, and the setting is indicated only in the most general way, but in this instance there is more attention given to the characterization of the individual participants, people scurrying in anticipation across the great Seda bridge, gossiping groups along the shore, and the boatmen hurling challenges at their competitors. The painting is anonymous but has been attributed to a civil painter working in the Kyoto area during the Kan-ei era (1624-1643). A companion screen, illustrating scenes from the Kabuki theatre, is in the possession of a private collector in Japan.Our final work, a pair of six-fold screens depicting Cranes by the Shore,³ is more purely decorative. The painter Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795), was active in the Kyoto area and was known as the founder of a realistic school which came heavily under the influence of European art, then entering Japan through the port of Nagasaki. Okyo's realism, actually better called naturalism, is most apparent in his detailed treatment of the single object and his observation of detail. Although he did concern himself with perspective effects and even produced "peep-shows" for the Kyoto audience, he seemed not to have been overly concerned with a fully realistic representation in the Western understanding of that term. Rather, he frequently blends Japanese and Western styles, as in the present example, in a most lyrical way and achieves an effect which in the final analysis is purely Japanese. The lavish use of gold, the open and evocative treatment of space, and the exquisite sense of composition are not things which Okyo learned from the poor European engravings which were filtering to him from the southern Japanese port. The wellspring of his art stretches back over centuries of Japanese painting and the "realistic" cranes are at most a quaint and superficial addition to the heritage of decorative screen painting.Robert Poor, Consultant in Oriental Art to the Institute, is Associate Professor of Art History at the University of Minnesota.Endnotes

1. 70.23.1,2. The William Hood Dunwood Fund. A pair of six-fold screens. Polychrome on paper, 66 1/2" x 24", each.
2. 69.73. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Richard P. Gale, Six-fold screen. Ink colors on paper with gold leaf, 26" (h.), each panel.
3. 70.18.1,2. Anonymous Gift of a Saint Paul Friend. A pair of six-fold screens. Polychrome on paper, 66 1/2" x 24", each.

Referenced Works of Art

1. Anonymous. Japanese, 18th century. Scenes from the Heike Monogatari (a pair of six-fold screens), Battle at Ichi-no-tani (right-hand screen) and Battle at Yashima (left-hand screen). Polychrome on paper, 66 1/2" x 24", each. The William Hood Dunwoody Fund, 70.23.1,2.
2. Anonymous. Japanese, ca. Kan-ei era, 1624-1643. Six-Fold Screen: Festival of Hiei Shrine (left). Ink colors on paper with gold leaf, 26" (h.), each panel. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Richard P. Gale, 69.73
3. Festival of Hiei Shrine (center).
4. Festival of Hiei Shrine (right).
5. Maruyama Okyo. Japanese (Kyoto School), 1733-1795. Cranes on the Shore (a pair of six fold screens-right-hand screen & left-hand screen). Polychrome on paper, 66 1/2" x 24", each. Anonymous Gift of a Saint Paul Friend, 70.18.1,2.