BERNARDO DADDI
Second only to Giotto, Bernardo Daddi was among the leading painters active in Florence during the first half of the 14th century. Though we do not know when Daddi was born, we presume it was during the late 13th century. He is recorded in a register of the Florentine guild of apothecaries for the years documented 1312 and 1320 and in another for the years between 1320 and 1350. He died during the "black plague" in 1348.

Daddi recognized a demand for personal devotional altars and popularized the small–scale portable triptych (three-paneled picture). He made an industry of producing these portable triptychs, which Duccio and his circle had merely experimented with. He established a large workshop with many assistants to complete the commissions he received.

Central Panel
The central panel of the triptych depicts the Madonna and child enthroned, flanked by Saints Helen and Peter to the viewer’s left and by Saints Catherine and Paul to the right. Each of the saints carries symbolic attributes which help to identify him/her.

The Madonna and Child
The significantly larger size of the Madonna and child group indicates that they are more important. Her traditionally red gown signifies the passion of Christ and her blue mantle that she is queen of Heaven. Her ornate throne, which repeats aspects of Gothic architecture, signifies that she is not only the queen of Heaven but represents the Catholic Church itself. The golden star that falls on her shoulder derives from her title "Star of the Sea" (Latin Stella Maris), which is the meaning of the Jewish form of her name, Miriam.³

Central Panel
St. Helen
The mother of the Roman Emperor Constantine, Helen was believed to have discovered the True Cross (the cross on which Christ was crucified). The saint here carries a miniature cross and wears a golden diadem to signify her royalty.

St. Peter
An apostle and one of the founders of the Church, Peter holds a key referring to the keys of Heaven, given to him by Christ. His bright yellow mantle is symbolic of Revealed Faith. The book, which he is often shown carrying, is the Gospel.

St. Catherine of Alexandria
Believed to be of royal birth, Catherine wears a golden diadem. She carries a book in reference to her great learning and carries a palm frond, a symbol of Christian martyrs signifying their triumph over death.

St. Paul
An apostle and one of the founders of the Church, Paul holds the book of his Epistles and the sword, with which he was beheaded in Rome.

Left Panel
In the left panel, Daddi shows St. Francis of Assisi receiving the stigmata (the marks of Christ’s wounds) from a seraph (a category of angels, traditionally depicted with red wings) with the figure of Christ. He wears the brown habit of the Franciscan Order, which he founded. He is an appropriate figure for this proto–Renaissance painting since he put forth the ideas that an individual could have a more personal relationship with God and that humans were noble and worthy creatures—central ideas for the Renaissance.

Right Panel
The right panel presents a scene of the Crucifixion of Christ with St. John the Evangelist and Mary. The Virgin Mary and St. John express visually the passage from John’s gospel (19:26–27) wherein Christ entrusted the care of Mary to his disciple, John the apostle. The skull beneath the cross identifies the site as Golgotha and refers to the legend that the site of the crucifixion also marked Adam’s burial place. According to Christian doctrine, by sacrificing himself on the cross, Christ made it possible for humankind to redeem itself from the original sin of Adam that it had inherited.

Left & Right Pinnacles
The left pinnacle features the Archangel Gabriel announcing to Mary, who sits in a chamber in the right pinnacle, that she will be the mother of Christ. Gabriel holds a lily—his attribute and a symbol of Mary’s purity—in one hand. The Virgin holds a book, from which, according to St. Bernard, she was reading Isaiah’s prophecy that "a young woman is with child, and she will bear a son. . ."⁴ at the time of the Annunciation.

Sienese Style
The Sienese style, exemplified in the paintings of Duccio, Simone Martini, and the Lorenzetti, emphasized decoration and elegance. Though consideration was given to evoking actual settings, delicate and often mannered figures were frequently depicted against gold and/or richly patterned surfaces.

Florentine Style
In general, Florentine art, under the directions established by the sculptor Giovanni Pisano and especially by Giotto, placed a greater emphasis on sculptural forms, spatial relationships, and modeling in light and shade. Figures often interacted in believable natural settings and exhibited truly human emotions.

Sienese/Florentine Styles
These two Tuscan styles drew primarily from three basic traditions which influenced Italian art to varying degrees during the 12th and 13th centuries: the Byzantine or Eastern tradition, the late Gothic or courtly style, and the classical tradition. Geographically, Italy was in an ideal position to absorb and to fuse diverse influences. The Byzantine style spread to different Italian states by means of manuscripts and icons that were dispersed along trade routes through Siena and up to Florence. Northern styles made their way into Italy along trade routes that ran downward through Tuscany. Elements of each of these traditions are visible in Daddi’s Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints.

Byzantine Tradition
The Byzantine style or "Greek manner" dominated Italian art in the early 13th century after the conquest of Constantinople by the fourth–crusade armies in 1204. This Italo–Byzantine style reflects characteristics of Byzantine icons and mosaics dating back to the 6th century. It was upon this Eastern tradition that the Sienese artists drew most heavily. Perhaps the clearest example of Byzantine–influenced painting in our collection is the Madonna and Child by Segna di Bonaventura. The Byzantine– related elements in Daddi’s Madonna and Child Enthroned with Saints are:

Gold Background
This extensive use of gold leaf, which denotes a heavenly or other–worldly realm, considerably flattens out the figures.

Two–dimensional
The two–dimensionality of the figures in the Byzantine style developed from an increasing emphasis (since the 6th century) on the symbolic or didactic function of images. Recognition of the figure became more important than realistic representation. The almost column–like bodies in Daddi’s saints and in the standing figures in the Crucifixion scene reflect this tradition.

Formulaic Poses
The formal and even artificial pose of the Madonna and child became a standard means for representing the two figures who appeared so frequently in Byzantine mosaic programs as well as in painted icons.

Madonna’s Facial Features
The typical Byzantine Madonna featured almond–shaped eyes, a long thin nose, and a "rosebud" mouth, all visible if somewhat softened in the Madonna in the central panel.

Linearity
With the reduction of figures to formulas in the Byzantine tradition, line, as opposed to modeling, was used to indicate folds in garments and the edges of figures against the gold backgrounds. This quality is particularly evident, for example, in the figures of Mary and John in Daddi’s Crucifixion scene.

Gothic Tradition
The late Gothic tradition, often called the courtly or international style, had a significant impact on Italian art during the late 13th and 14th centuries and, in combination with the Byzantine style, in large part shaped the decorative Sienese style. This aristocratic northern style appeared in late Gothic cathedral sculpture and in manuscript illumination. Elements of the Gothic style in Daddi’s work are:

Shape of the Triptych
The overall shape of Daddi’s triptych and the shape of Mary’s throne, with its spires, resemble the pointed arches of French Gothic Cathedrals. This architectural style also influenced Italian architecture of the 14th century (e.g., Siena Cathedral), which Daddi would have been familiar with.

Gothic Naturalism
The human relationship of the Madonna and child reflects the more gentle treatment given to religious images during the late Gothic period. With the growing need for a more human and personal religion, figures became less rigid and more approachable. Through the influence of St. Francis’ teachings, the Virgin grew in popularity as an accessible and gentle intercessor so the new naturalism was particularly evident in depictions of the mother playing with the Christ child. This Gothic humanism had a strong impact on Giotto and the Florentine style which developed in the 14th century. It is also very well–reflected in the human qualities of the suffering Christ in Daddi’s triptych.

Decoration and Patterning
French manuscript illuminations were highly decorative and characterized by bright colors, fluid curving lines, and relatively large patterned surfaces. This very elegant quality was particularly influential in Siena. Daddi takes advantage of this decorative appeal in the patterns on the Madonna’s throne in the central panel and the patterns in her chamber in the upper right–hand panel. As in the manuscripts, this tends to flatten out the figures and, therefore, to emphasize their linearity.

Use of Symbols
Though commonly used in Gothic art, the practice of using symbols and/or attributes to identify those portrayed in Christian art dated back to the early Christian era.

Classical Tradition
The Classical tradition, the tradition of antiquity, had special importance for Italian artists who were surrounded by the ancient reminders of their past. Antique statuary, particularly Roman sarcophagi, had a strong impact on the sculpture of Nicola and Giovanni Pisano, who were, in turn, an inspiration to Giotto and his followers. Further, some ancient Roman frescoes still extant in the 14th century, inspired artists to render scenes naturalistically. The classical elements, as they were interpreted by the Italian artists, evident in Daddi’s triptych are:

Corporeality
The figure of St. Francis appears as an actual body under the garment. Looking at sculpture (particularly of draped figures) as a model, Giotto and his followers achieved the effect of corporeality by modeling in dark and light. The effects is, likewise, achieved in the body of the Christ figure in the Crucifixion scene.

Three–Dimensionality
Related to the achievement of corporeality is the idea of "realistically" depicting a figure as though it is occupying an actual space. This effect is evident in the turned pose of St. Francis, who appears in a landscape scene. This desire to realistically render forms in space was long a concern for the ancient Romans.

As suggested, Daddi’s treatment of St. Francis is considerably more advanced than his treatment of the figures of the saints. Inspired by Giotto’s full–bodied forms, this figure appears fully modeled in dark and light. There is a solid body under his garments. Further, despite the gold sky, Daddi has placed St. Francis outdoors in a natural setting. This concern with convincingly representing humans in nature would preoccupy artists during the Renaissance.

The figure of Christ on the cross is also fully modeled and reveals Daddi’s interest in rendering a believable figure. Although flattened by the patterned surfaces behind them, the figures of the Virgin and child in the central panel appear quite massive. The Archangel Gabriel and the Virgin in the Annunciation scene both appear as real figures occupying believable spaces.

The use of empirically drawn architectural spaces in the Virgin’s chamber in the right pinnacle and, less successfully, in her throne in the central panel, also illustrate the proto–Renaissance interest in producing convincing presentations of reality. Both Sienese and Florentine artists dealt with architectural structures. However, the rich patterning and delicate lines of Daddi’s structures link them more closely with the Sienese style.

The very presence of St. Francis, an important figure for the dawning of humanism, indicates that this is a transitional work from the medieval age to the Renaissance. His prominent position in the triptych suggests that whoever commissioned the devotional piece was deeply committed to the Franciscan order.

That an individual commissioned the triptych for private devotion tells us something more about the transition from the medieval period to the Renaissance. Commissions of artworks were no longer restricted to the church. Wealthy individuals who wanted luxury items for their homes or who were unable to be home for prayer, owing to traveling, could now commission such devotional objects. In Florence, with the rise in banking and trade, private industry and wealth had become an aspect of everyday life. Humanism encouraged people to realize that they were capable of shaping their own world.

The Technique of Panel Painting in 14th Century Tuscany
The technique followed in the production of this small devotional item is essentially the same used for all panel paintings, regardless of size. In fact, in medieval Italian workshops the same artisans undertook major commissions and small objects simultaneously and indiscriminately, turning out parade banners and book covers as well as large altarpieces.

Knowledge of the techniques of medieval Tuscan painting has in modern times been vastly extended by technology. Identification and analysis of support, medium and pigments, as well as X-radiography and infra-red reflectography, have all helped to clarify the methods and materials used by medieval painters. Yet the single most valuable source remains the treatise called Il Libro d’Arte (The Craftsman’s Handbook) written in about 1390 by Cennino Cennini, a Tuscan painter who himself practiced the very techniques he describes. Cennini specifies the methods used in both fresco and panel painting, since a painter would have been required to be proficient in both.

The exacting and multi-step procedure for producing a panel painting had been in use for some time before its description by Cennini. It is interesting to note that because medieval artisans artisans adhered so strictly to proscribed methods, the surfaces of panel paintings are very stable and have been able to resist the effects of environment and bad treatment to a surprising degree. Thus a tempera painting of the early 14th century is often better preserved, and consequently easier to conserve, than an unvarnished acrylic painting of the 1960s.

First, a plank of seasoned wood was chosen, usually poplar since other types of timber were not generally available in Tuscany. Our triptych is a single panel, but in the case of larger pictures or multi-partite altarpieces, several planks were butt-joined to form a continuous surface. According to Cennini, a strong casein glue made from quicklime mixed with a skimmed milk cheese was employed. Sometimes the butt-joins were secured by wooden dowels.

The panel was then prepared with a gesso ground. This stage may have been executed by an artisan in the master’s workshop or by an outside specialist hired for the purpose. The first stage was to give the whole panel, including any attached parts of the frame, several coats of glue size, made from boiled animal skins or clippings made from goat or sheep skins left over from making parchment sheets for manuscripts. Pieces of worn linen, usually of a quite fine and open weave, were then soaked in size and laid over the flat areas. The main purpose of this canvas appears to have been to reinforce any joins and to even out flaws on the surface of the panel.

When the size used to attach the linen was completely dry, the panel was ready for the application of several layers of gesso. Essentially, gesso consists of hydrated calcium sulphate, or gypsum, mixed with animal glue, and in fact the word gesso is simply Italian for gypsum. The warm, still humid gesso was applied with a with a large, soft bristle brush to all surfaces to be decorated. After several layers of gesso had been applied -- as many as eight, Cennini suggests – and were thoroughly hardened, the gesso ground was scraped down with a straight-edge scraper, to achieve an ivory-smooth surface. Cennini recommends the bone of a goose as ideal for this purpose.

Since very few 14^th century Italian drawings have survived, very little is known about the way a composition was designed. It has been theorized that painters may have followed a standard proportional system to calculate the dimensions of the components, or relied on previous models. In most cases, as Cennini instructs, the painter made a preliminary underdrawing directly on the gesso ground in charcoal (which could be erased and corrected), which he then traced over with dilute ink.

Now that the design was fixed, the divisions of the areas to be gilded and those to be painted were usually lightly scored into the gesso with a stylus. Gilding was done before painting. An area to be gilded was prepared by the application of a layer of bole, a soft, greasy clay, orange or red-brown in color. The bole provides a smooth cushioned surface to which gold leaf adheres, and it imparts a warm rich color to the gold. This is important because gold leaf is beaten so thinly that it can appear rather green and cold in color if applied to a white surface.

Gold leaf was applied in small sheets only millimeters thick. A small piece of gold was beaten between leaves of parchment into extremely thin sheets. Cennini indicates that the standard Florentine gold coin, called a fiorino d’oro, was commonly used. The fiorino was ideal for this purpose, the purity of the gold used in making the fiorino was rigidly controlled: nominally 24 karat with only minor impurities. The fragile and precious gold leaf was applied with great care in small sections to the bole, which had previously moistened with water. The process was repeated, each section slightly overlapping the other, until the whole area to be gilded is covered. The gilded area was then gently rubbed, or burnished, with a hard polished stone, so that it bonded with the bole underneath. Burnishing brought out the sheen of the metal, and the resulting surface appeared to be solid, gleaming gold.

Once burnished, the surface was ready for decoration with incised lines, tooling and ornamental punching, especially in areas such as haloes and garment borders, where added surface texture was desired. Lines were indented into the gold with a stylus, while tiny hand-held punches were used to make composite punch marks, usually in foliate patterns. Since the punch marks tend to differ on the products of different workshops, distinguishable marks can serve as evidence for the attribution of some works.

The artist now proceeded to paint the non-gilded areas of gesso ground with tempera colors, using egg as the binder. The pigments used to produce various colors were derived from natural mineral and earth deposits, plant and animal sources, and some artificially produced colors not of an organic nature, such as vermilion. Most pigments could be obtained from apothecaries, who stocked materials for a whole range of crafts, as well as for medicinal purposes. Some were available locally, others were imported at great cost. For example, scale-insect byproducts were used to manufacture red lake pigments, also widely used in dyeing cloth, a major industry in Florence. Azzurite, a copper ore mined in France, Spain and Germany, was used to produce shades of blue.

Lead white, the key white pigment for all aspects of painting on panel, was manufactured from sheets of metallic lead. Lead white was invariably used for lightening all other colors; it is the basis for certain flesh tints and is sometimes used as a pure white underpaint to provide luminosity to paint layers laid on top.

A variety of easily made black pigments were also available. These included willow charcoal, black earth, and lampblack, as well charred almond shells, peach stones and vine twig. All these materials principally composed of elemental carbon are permanent on egg tempera.

The most precious and sought-after of all artist’s materials was ultramarine, a blue mineral extracted from the semi-precious stone, lapis lazuli. Ultramarine was a rare, imported commodity, more expensive than pure gold. It produced a brilliant blue, and has the further virtue of preserving its color and clarity, whereas azurite has often turned black over time, due to chemical change.

Another pigment that produced a versatile, stable color is a clay-like and siliceous deposit known as terra verde, or terre verte, both literally meaning "green earth". Its most important function in panel painting is as the underpaint in flesh tones. This explains the seemingly unnatural occurrence of green in faces and other flesh areas where the superimposed paint layer has been abraded.

Pigments were prepared in the painter’s workshop, carefully washed in water and ground by hand to the right consistency. Because tempera colors cannot be mixed in the same way as oil paint, it had to be applied in separate brushstrokes in a complex, multi-layer structure. The modeling and blending of the colors were achieved optically, the result of the painstaking application of layer upon layer of fine, intermeshed brushstrokes. Each layer had to dry before the next was applied. Brushes were made of the hairs from the tips of the tails of minever or ermine, trimmed and fitted onto turned wooden handles.

The final stage of execution was the embellishment of the painted draperies with lines of gilding in imitation of gold embroidery, sometimes termed feathering. In the 14th century the most commonly used method for this was mordant gilding, whereby small pieces of gold leaf were laid on an adhesive or oil mordant previously applied to the areas to be so decorated. The Madonna and Child by Segna da Bonaventura in the Minneapolis Institute of Arts collection exhibits gold striations of this type, which indicated the person’s divine status.

The extent to which early tempera paintings were varnished and the type of varnish used is a much-debated topic among conservators and art-historians. Some paintings were not varnished, since the painter evidently preferred the matte sheen of the tempera. At the end of his section on panel painting, Cennini gives brief instructions on how on how and when to varnish a painting with an oleo-resinous varnish. This varnish, which may have consisted of semi-hard resins dissolved and boiled in linseed oil, would have been viscous and hard to apply, as well as slow to dry. Cennini advises a waiting period between the completion of a painting and varnishing, although the delay of one year he recommends may not have been feasible in all cases. When newly applied, an oleo-resinous would have been quite clear, but with a glossy finish. Over time, however, it darkens to a grayish-yellow or orange color. Therefore in the intervening centuries many panel paintings have been subjected to harsh cleaning methods, such caustic alkalis and abrasives, to remove the varnish, resulting in damage to the surface and losses in the paint layer.

The Painter and his workshop
Panel paintings were not the works of individuals, but they were collaborative efforts of a master painter and his assistants. It is important to remember that the medieval artist was not thought of as a creative genius, but as craftsman, no more distinguished than a shoemaker or a wool-dyer. The status of painter ranked low among professions, even among other crafts. There were, of course, some painters who were more competent than others and rose in status. In rare instances we know their names, such Giotto in Florence and Simone Martini in Siena. For the most part painters of the 14^th century remain anonymous, since they did not routinely sign their works and no documents citing them survive.

All professions were organized into guilds – organizations regulating production, sales, ethics, etc. It was obligatory to belong to a guild in order to practice one’s craft. In Florence painters were subsidiary members of the Arte dei Medici e Speziali (Guild of Doctors and Apothecaries) because they employed the same substances and materials.

The master painter was certainly responsible for the design and supervision of a work, and probably executed the most important parts himself. However, as we have seen, much of the artist’s work involved the preparation as well the application of the materials. In a workshop setting, much of the arduous preliminary work, such as grinding pigments and mixing size glue, would have been carried out by apprentices or lesser assistants. A youth was apprenticed to a master, by contract, for a period varying from three to eight years. He learned all phases of the production of a painting or other work, and could only become a master in his own right when he satisfied standards stipulated by the painter’s guild.

Two or more masters sometimes worked in collaboration. On occasion specific tasks were sub-contracted to specialists, such as carpenters (for panel construction) or gilders. Within a workshop the members could vary in status, working at correspondingly varied rates of pay. Workshops often contained members of the same family, particularly father and son or brothers, setting up a sort of dynastic partnership.

Since Bernardo Daddi was active in Florence between 1312 and 1348, we can be reasonably sure that he was trained in the traditional methods of tempera painting on panel and followed them in the production of this triptych. In 1348 a cataclysmic event occurred that decimated the population of Europe and threw it into a period of economic decline – the spread of the bubonic plague. Daddi was one of the countless Tuscan artists who perished in that plague. Nevertheless, the techniques of fresco and panel painting practiced during his lifetime were transmitted to the next generation of artists, and were not substantially altered until the medium of oil on canvas gained supremacy in the mid-16th century.

• European Art (14th to 18th centuries)
• How Was It Made? (to illustrate gold leaf and tempera)
• Spirituality and Art
• Visual Elements

Highlights of the Museum’s Collection tour with a symbolism theme

This is an excellent work to use to illustrate the transition from the medieval period to the Renaissance in terms of style and culture. On a general tour, you need not distinguish between Gothic and Byzantine characteristics. Instead, organize your discussion to illustrate what is medieval (this will encompass both) versus what is looking forward to the Renaissance. This painting makes a great comparison to several other works you will use regularly.

Compare this to the stone 14th–century Gothic Madonnas. Note the same growing humanism in the relationship between mother and child as well as the heavy reliance on symbols.

Compare Costa’s Portrait of a Cardinal in His Study with this to illustrate the development of concepts such as people in believable spaces and the importance of the individual during the Renaissance.

When discussing the triptych format at the Master of the St. Lucy Legend, Lamentation with Saint John and Saint Catherine, refer back to this piece. You could also discuss how the different sizes suggest different functions.

While discussing the importance of the Virgin and saints or the use of gold leaf, it is useful to point out the predominance of these aspects in other paintings.

1. Thomas H. Greer, A Brief History of the Western World, 5th edition (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987), p. 278. For a good account of the changes taking place during this period, see Greer, pp. 243-250 and 277-288.
2. The Franciscans taught the word of Francis of Assisi, a mystic who encouraged others to seek god's truth through inner inspiration and revelation.
3. James Hall, Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art (New York: Harper & Row, 1979), p. 330.
4. Hall, Dictionary, p. 19.

Flanders was ruled at this time by the dukes of Burgundy (cousins of the French kings). The annexation of the Low Countries had come about through the intermarriage of the dukes with the House of Flanders. They made Bruges their capital, and patronized the arts by commissioning illuminated manuscripts, tapestries, and furniture for their castles. Their taste for the specific and the tangible details of the visible world greatly influenced the development of 15th-century Flemish painting.

Flanders and the city of Bruges in particular, reached their height economically and artistically under the rule of Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy. His death in 1477 was followed by a gradual decline in Flemish power and its eventual annexation to Spain and the House of Hapsburg in the 16th century. The economy of Bruges likewise declined due to the gradual silting up of its North Sea channel. By the end of the century, Antwerp had replaced Bruges as the economic and artistic center of the region.

In contrast to the ancient Roman ruins of Italy, the northern monuments were Gothic cathedrals. The tradition out of which Flemish painting grew was not antiquity but rather the late Gothic or International Style.¹ Flemish artists were more interested in rendering the surface appearances of their subjects than their underlying structure. Their approach was to give a faithful representation of reality by adding detail upon detail until the painting mirrored the visible world. This was because Flemish people had a reverential attitude toward the visible world. They made no differentiation between that which was sacred and that which was secular. Because everything in God's eye was sacred, all details of ordinary life were raised to the sacred in paintings, and likewise, all that was sacred became commonplace.

The illuminated manuscripts produced for the dukes of Burgundy toward the end of the 14th century were characterized by an intense interest in the actual world of appearances meticulously rendered with minute detail, brilliant color, enamel-like surfaces, and flat decorative patterns. Also evident in these works was an attention to everyday activities of life, specific times of year, and the natural world, giving prominence to the secular within a sacred text. These characteristics were translated on a larger scale to altarpieces by the masters of the 15th century like Robert Campin, the van Eycks, and Rogier van der Weyden.

By the late 15th century, the great flourishing of Flemish painting was already declining. Individual masters were replaced by guild workers, and the middle class replaced the nobles as patrons. Originality and innovation gave way to imitation. Artists, like the
Master of St. Lucy Legend, broke no new ground, but turned instead to an eclectic approach. They combined elements of different altarpieces of the masters in a variety of ways. Rather than seeking to elicit piety or religious fervor, the later altarpieces were designed to please their patrons. Artists flattered the civic pride of their clients by rendering local landmarks in great detail, like the Bruges cityscape in the background of this altarpiece.

Flemish realism, realized through endless detail, is even more tangible than Italian realism achieved through a scientific approach. This vision of a serene natural beauty in the service of religion led Flemish artists to amplify the qualities of beauty inherent in even the most insignificant objects. The soft textures of hair, the glitter of gold in the heavy brocades, the luster of pearls, the flashing of gems were all painted with tireless fidelity to appearance. The symbolic content of the Gothic image is made more visual in an attempt to represent the truths of the Christian religion in their most tangible and accessible form. The Flemish artists' predisposition to naturalism and disguised symbolism embodied in the ordinary objects of everyday life had its basis in the nominalist philosophy of the time. Nominalists considered the physical world the key to knowing reality. In their view, reality exists in individual objects and persons, which are directly perceived by the senses. (This view is in contrast to the platonic idea that reality is only in the mind of God and thus expressed through ideas.) If one embraced nominalism, it was logical to reason that it was not only important to closely observe the physical nature of things in the world but also to render them accurately in painting. The nominalist philosophy was given further support by the Flemish theologian, Nicholas of Cusa, who exalted sight to divine status. He asserted that because everything in the world is in God's sight, God is present in everything that exists, no matter how insignificant. This led to the belief that faithful reproduction of the visible world was akin to an act of worship, and that the resulting painting was a mirror of the divine.

The presence of several other figures around Mary and Christ in this scene, suggest the influence of the second tradition, known as a lamentation scene. In Christian iconography, persons traditionally included in a lamentation scene besides the Virgin and Christ are St. John the Evangelist, Mary Magdalene, and Joseph of Arimathea. On occasion, Nicodemus, who provided the unguents to anoint the body, and one or more holy women like Mary, the mother of Joseph of Arimathea, are also included.

In the central panel (unlike the side panels) no attributes are included with the figures, so positive identification of any individuals other than the Virgin and Christ is problematic.

However, we have identified the man supporting the head of Christ as Joseph of Arimathea on the basis of his sumptuous garments. According to biblical accounts, Joseph was a wealthy individual who gave his own tomb for the body of Christ. Furthermore, it is likely that the male figure in yellow on the Virgin's right is St. John the Evangelist, because we know that he was present at the crucifixion and is always included in lamentation scenes. As here, he is usually shown as young and beardless and providing comfort to the grieving Virgin. The woman on the Virgin's left with long flowing hair and dressed in contemporary Flemish fashion is probably Mary Magdalene, who is also usually present in lamentation pictures. The man on the extreme right may be Nicodemus and the woman on the left in the red robes could be Mary, the mother of Joseph of Arimathea.² A theory has also been proposed asserting that the two figures on the far right (the man the woman previously identified as Mary Magdalene) are the donors. Their contemporary Flemish garments supports this idea. However, while not impossible, it would be unusual to find donors represented in the central panel of a triptych. Donors were more typically portrayed in the side panels, often kneeling and sometimes in smaller scale than the holy figures.³

Some of the facial types of the figures suggest Spanish or Asian influence. It is possible that the artist chose models from the great variety of different nationalities of people drawn to Bruges at that time. It is possible also that the figures conform to a conventional ideal of beauty of the age.⁴

The holy scene is set before an accurate and detailed view of the architecture of Bruges in the late 15th century, bringing the event closer to the everyday lives of the worshippers. In fact, the details of the cityscape are so precise that we are able to date the painting by the octagonal stage of the belfry of a commercial building that was being restored following a fire. The other notable landmark is the tall spire of the Church of Notre Dame. Both structures still exist and look remarkably similar today. If one has the energy to climb the 356 steps of the belfry, you will be rewarded by a wonderful view of the city of Bruges and the immediate countryside. Although the architecture of Bruges is accurately recorded, the artist has taken license with the natural landscape. Bruges is not a coastal city, nor is it mountainous. At one time, Bruges had access to the sea through the river Zwin, but the river was silted up by the year 1490, cutting off access to the sea. However, even before that time the fantastic landscape of vast water, hills and distant rocky mountains, typical of this artist, was completely unlike the flat terrain of Bruges.

It is obvious that the artist was partial to decorative elements. Great pains have been taken to give the scene a real life setting, making it more relevant to the Flemish people. This is evidenced by the contemporary clothing of several of the figures. Likewise, instead of the traditional blue and red costume, the Virgin wears the blue and white habit of a nun. The figures occupy an idyllic landscape, where every leaf and flower has been carefully trimmed, and swans swim on the pond before the fairy-tale castles of the city. Yet there is no mistaking that this is a scene of religious importance. Stylistically, the solidity of the figures, the close observation of nature (including contemporary Bruges), the possible inclusion of donor portraits, and the realistic attention given to the appearance of Christ's body suggests the influence of the Italian Renaissance. But these characteristics are blended with the traditions of the Late Gothic style. The figures are somewhat elongated (imagine if Christ were standing up), they are stiff and angular, and their faces are not individualized. The figures are placed close to the picture plane in a shallow foreground space, and the background is treated rather like a two-dimensional curtain drop. Depth is indicated by the diminishing size of things in the distance (although notice how large the swans are), the overlapping of figures, and the separate delineation of a foreground, middle ground, and background space by color without a logical transition.

Greater attention is given to the surface detail of the costumes and hair than to the actual anatomy of the figures. While considerable attention is given to the details of Christ's pale skin, rolled-up eyes, and open mouth, there is little attempt to portray accurate anatomy. Rather, the purpose is to create a pious image of suffering as a meditative device.

• the spiked wheel that is at the lower edge of her skirt
  
• the crown that signifies her royalty
  
• the sword in her right hand that is the symbol of her martyrdom
  
• the book in her left hand refers to her learning

It is possible that St. Catherine appears on this altarpiece because she was the patron saint of the donor. However, the Master of the St. Lucy Legend also included her image on other altarpieces. Her symbolic importance and general popularity would certainly have warranted her inclusion during this period. (In the MIA's sculpture, 20.11, Catherine appears victorious standing upon the body of Emperor Maxentius.)

An identifiable feature of the work of the Master of the Saint Lucy Legend is the cityscape of Bruges, which he included in many of his works. Other hallmarks of this particular artist's work are a close observation of the natural world as evidenced by his attention to the foliage of the foreground and the garden-like display of the middle ground, and a pleasing decorative sense.

• European Masterpieces of Art (14th to 18th centuries)
  
• Spirituality and Art
  
• People and Places (for the contemporary costumes and view of Bruges)
  
• Visual Choices
  
• Music and Art

Compare the minute details of objects and the disguised symbolism in this painting with that found in the d'Ancona, the Claesz, or the Madonna and Child by the Master of the Embroidered Foliage.

Compare this example of Northern Renaissance painting with the Portrait of a Cardinal in His Study, attributed to Costa, as an example of Italian Renaissance painting.

Compare this triptych to the 20th-century painting by Beckmann or to the earlier altarpiece by Daddi. What appeal did the format have originally? Why would it continue to be used in this century?

1. In painting and sculpture, a fairly homogeneous style predominated in Europe from about1400-1420, which combined Italian and Northern European styles. It was characterized by a close observation of the world, a humanizing of religious subjects with secular elements, and meticulous attention to detail. In Italy, the Renaissance replaced it. In the north, the traditions of panel painting grew out of it.
2. The attribute of St. John the Evangelist is the eagle; Mary Magdalene's attribute is a vessel containing oil of myrrh with which she anointed Christ's feet; Nicodemus' attribute is a jar of spices which he provided for the anointing of Christ's body in preparation for burial.
3. If these figures do in fact represent donors, then it is possible that Mary Magdalene is the woman in the red robe on the right next to St. John.
4. Suggested by Michael Stoughton in lecture to MIA docents.